AFRICA AND CLIMATE CHANGE

“Population growth is increasing water demand, over exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation has significantly degraded the world’s freshwater resources. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the number of countries where water demand outstrips available resources is increasing and many African countries experience either water stress (less than 1,700 m3 per capita per annum) or water scarcity (less than 1,000 m3 per capita per annum) or both. Moreover, food insecurity remains endemic throughout much of Africa, with climatic factors such as rainfall variability a major cause. If we look back in 2006, 25 African countries required food aid, largely due to recurring drought. Poverty and food insecurity are linked to low agricultural productivity aggravated by climate change and variability.  45 years ago the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug stated, “Humankind in the 21st century will need to bring about a Blue Revolution to complement the Asian Green Revolution of the 20th century… New science and technology must lead the way.”

BACKGROUND African smallholder farmers have no alternative but to adapt to climate change and climate variability. This will require an unprecedented level of political commitment, increased investments and financial resources, and enhanced local and national capacity. Fortunately, several practical options for adaptation exist, and these must be refined, augmented and deployed appropriately as a matter of urgency. Following is a list of some of these options: Ø  Intensification of food production by smallholders through better access to improved seed, soil fertility management (eg, fertilizer application) and reliable water supply Ø  Improved agricultural water management (smallholder irrigation, rainwater harvesting, sustainable extraction of groundwater and other underutilized water resources), conservation agriculture and improved on-farm water use efficiency Shifts towards crop and livestock types/varieties/breeds with greater drought and heat tolerance and improved pest and disease resistance Ø   Enterprise diversification towards higher value crops, value adding (processing), off-farm employment, and marketing infrastructure Ø  Grain storage improvements (from household to national levels) to ensure security of carryover stocks and access to surpluses Ø  Climate forecasting and provision of timely advice to governments, private sector (agro-dealers), extension services and farmers Weather-related crop and livestock insurance

CLIMATE CHANGE AND WATER RESOURCES Agriculture and climate change are inextricably linked, this was stated in one of the meeting after the horn Africa food crisis that “Agriculture is part of the climate change problem, contributing about 13.5% of annual greenhouse gas emissions (with forestry contributing an additional 19%), compared with 13.1% from transportation. Agriculture is, however, also part of the solution, offering promising opportunities for mitigating emissions through carbon sequestration, soil and land use management, and biomass production. Climate change threatens agricultural production through higher and more variable temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns and increased occurrences of extreme events like droughts and floods”. The challenges of water resources development in SSA will be aggravated by ensuing climate change, with serious implications on socio-economic development. The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2007 noted that “these challenges include population pressure, problems associated with land use such as erosion/siltation and possible ecological consequences of land use change on the hydrological cycle. Climate change – especially changes in climate variability through droughts and flooding – will make addressing these problems more complex. The greatest impact will continue to be felt by the poor, who have the most limited access to water resources”. In the savanna regions, the incidence of seasonal flow cessation may be on the increase, as shown by some streams in Zimbabwe. Southern Africa has experienced more recurrent drought and flood episodes in recent times. Drought periods now translate into periods of critical water shortages for industrial and urban domestic supplies. The frequent droughts and floods in most parts of SSA – leading to severe food shortages, food insecurity, water scarcity, hunger/famine and acute shortage of hydro power – signify the region’s vulnerability to climate change. Reduced hydro power also affects energy supply for pumping water. There is a general consensus that the African continent is particularly susceptible to the onset of climate change. A variety of factors exacerbate susceptibility to the effects of climate variability but, in focusing on strictly physical elements, the range of ecosystems present on the continent poses particular challenges in developing mitigation and adaptation mechanisms.

GENDER PERCEPTIVE VS CLIMATE CHANGE Emerging evidence shows that women and girls will experience even greater inequality through the impacts of climate change. It is evident that women suffer disproportionately in nearly all disasters. In 2011 in the Horn of Africa according YOUNG research “disasters shortened women’s life expectancy significantly more than men’s but encouragingly, this association was reduced where women’s status was more equal. Many women are made vulnerable by their reduced access to sources of emergency information, as well as their lack of decision-making power in disaster prevention and preparedness programs; they are also often excluded from disaster recovery operations and from planning at the national level”. I realized that “the unequal impact on women is not only evident in major disaster events – it also affects everyday life and opportunities, since in many low income countries, women already work more hours each day than men. Additionally, in Africa, women are more involved in agriculture than men – an estimated 80% of smallholder farmers are women”. It’s estimated that women produce 60-80% of food grown in the developing world – often small-scale crops critical to sustenance. In SSA, women are responsible for 65% of farming activity in the smallholder irrigation sector In addition; women and girls are responsible for collecting and carrying water, among many other domestic activities. I think “as communities cope with the effects of changes in climate, demands on women’s time and workloads are likely to increase. To compensate for increased demands on their time, poor families may pull girls out of school”. The added stresses incurred by a changing climate compound the many risks already faced by women in developing countries. Consideration and integration of gender issues is therefore important in any assessment of how smallholder water resources management relates to climate change in Africa. The equal inclusion of men and women in all aspects of water resources management is imperative. Gender mainstreaming must focus on a holistic approach to ensure sustainability of climate change adaptation strategies and programs in Africa. Gender-sensitive water governance should address the institutions, policies, legal frameworks and technologies that perpetuate gender inequalities. A gender approach in governance should be an integral part of setting up broader governance structures and mechanisms. This means promoting the involvement of both women and men in consultation and decision making from the community level to the highest management levels. Gender-focused approaches in water governance depend on the skills, knowledge and commitment of staff involved in implementation and management.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS The predicted impacts of climate change must be introduced into development planning, including land-use planning, natural resources management, infrastructure design and measures to reduce vulnerability in disaster reduction strategies, the array of adaptation options is very large, ranging from purely technological measures to managerial adaptation and policy reform. For developing countries, availability of resources and adaptive capacity building are particularly important. Based on anticipated climate change and impacts on water resources in Africa, the intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identified four necessary adaptive strategies. Ø  Adaptive measures. Measures should be adopted that would enhance flexibility, resulting in net benefits in water resources (irrigation and water reuse, aquifer and groundwater management, desalinization), agriculture (crop changes, technology, irrigation, husbandry), and forestry (regeneration of local species, energy-efficient cook stoves, sustainable community management). Ø  Risk sharing. A risk-sharing approach between countries will strengthen adaptation strategies, including disaster management, risk communication, emergency evacuation, and cooperative water resources management. Ø  Enhancement of adaptive capacity. Local empowerment is essential in decision-making in order to incorporate climate adaptation within broader sustainable development strategies. Most countries in Africa are particularly vulnerable to climate change because of limited adaptive capacity as a result of widespread poverty, recurrent droughts, inequitable land distribution and dependence on rain fed agriculture. Ø  Diversification. To minimize sensitivity to climate change, African economies should be more diversified, and agricultural technology should optimize water usage through efficient irrigation and crop development.